BBA Chapter 9 — Pronouns

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Basics of Biblical Aramaic, Van Pelt
Chapter 9: Pronouns

1. Introduction

Pronouns are words that stand in place of nouns. Biblical Aramaic has a full pronoun system covering independent personal, demonstrative, interrogative, existential, indefinite, and relative functions. For the student who knows Biblical Hebrew, the Aramaic pronoun system will feel immediately familiar in structure — yet each category has its own distinctive forms that must be learned on their own terms.

Types of pronouns covered in this chapter:

Why pronouns matter. The Aramaic narrative of Daniel and the royal correspondence of Ezra are saturated with these forms. Daniel opens with royal proclamations full of demonstratives (דְּנָה, הָדֵין) and the existential אִיתַי. The interrogative מַן introduces Nebuchadnezzar's famous challenge in Daniel 3:15. Mastering this chapter gives direct access to some of the most dramatic passages in the Aramaic canon.

Hebrew comparison: The overall grammar of pronouns is the same: independent forms serve as subjects and predicates; demonstratives modify or stand alone; interrogatives introduce questions. The forms, however, are often strikingly different, and Aramaic has the existential pair אִיתַי/לֵית for which Hebrew uses יֵשׁ/אֵין. Note that parallel to Hebrew, Aramaic pronouns do not inflect for case.

2. Independent Personal Pronouns

Independent personal pronouns in Biblical Aramaic stand alone as separate words and function as the subject of a sentence or as the predicate nominative in a verbless (equative) clause.

2.1 Full Paradigm

Notes on key forms:
- 1cs אֲנָה: Compare Hebrew אֲנִי / אָנֹכִי. Aramaic has one standard form with a final he. The he is part of the word, not the determined state ending.
- 1cp אֲנַחְנָה: Compare Hebrew אֲנַחְנוּ / נַחְנוּ. The final he (ָה-) is a characteristically Aramaic feature, as seen also in other first-person plural forms (compare the suffix ַנָא- from Ch8).
- 2ms אַנְתְּ / אַנְתָּה: Both forms occur in Biblical Aramaic. The shorter אַנְתְּ is more common. Compare Hebrew אַתָּה. The initial aleph replaces the Hebrew aleph-taw combination.
- 2fs אַנְתִּי: Compare Hebrew אַתְּ. Aramaic adds a yod to distinguish the feminine.
- 3ms הוּא / 3fs הִיא: Identical to Hebrew הוּא / הִיא. These are among the most stable cognates between the two languages.
- 3mp הִמּוֹ / הִמּוֹן / אִנּוּן: Three variant forms exist; אִנּוּן is the most distinctive Aramaic form and appears frequently in Daniel. Compare Hebrew הֵם / הֵמָּה. The initial aleph in אִנּוּן is unexpected from a Hebrew perspective and must simply be learned.
- 3fp אִנֵּין: Corresponds to Hebrew הֵן / הֵנָּה. Note the characteristic Aramaic final nun.

2.2 Functions

Subject of a verbal clause:

In a clause with a finite verb, the independent pronoun appears alongside the verb for emphasis or disambiguation. Aramaic verbs are inflected for person/gender/number, so the pronoun is not strictly necessary — its presence adds emphasis.

Predicate nominative in a verbless clause:

Aramaic, like Hebrew, can express "A is B" without a verb. The independent pronoun frequently functions as the subject of such clauses.

Hebrew comparison: The pattern is the same as Hebrew: pronoun + noun/adjective = equative clause without a copula (הָיָה). Note especially the pleonastic pronoun pattern (הוּא used as a copula) — this is more common in Aramaic than in Hebrew and appears throughout Daniel.

3. Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns in Biblical Aramaic point to referents as near ("this") or far ("that"). They function either as adjectives modifying a noun or as independent pronouns standing alone as the subject or object.

3.1 Near Demonstratives ("This / These")

Notes:
- דְּנָה (ms): The most frequent demonstrative in Biblical Aramaic. It ends in the same final ָה found on many Aramaic forms (compare אֲנָה, אֲנַחְנָה). Compare Hebrew זֶה.
- דָּא (fs): Compare Hebrew זֹאת. The short, two-letter Aramaic form דָּא is distinctive.
- אִלֵּין (cp): Used for both masculine and feminine plural. Compare Hebrew אֵלֶּה. The Aramaic form adds a nun, paralleling the noun plural pattern (compare מַלְכִין).

3.2 Far Demonstratives ("That / Those")

Notes:
- הָדֵין / הָדָא: In practice, these forms overlap with the near demonstratives and are sometimes used interchangeably for "this." The distinction between near and far is less consistently maintained in Biblical Aramaic than in Hebrew.
- אִנּוּן as "those": This is the same form as the 3mp independent personal pronoun. Context determines whether אִנּוּן means "they" (pronoun) or "those" (demonstrative adjective/pronoun). Parallel to Hebrew הֵמָּה serving both functions.

3.3 Adjectival Use

When a demonstrative modifies a noun, it typically follows the noun and agrees with it in gender. The noun normally appears in the determined state.

Hebrew comparison: Hebrew demonstratives also follow the determined noun: הַמֶּלֶךְ הַזֶּה. Aramaic parallels this pattern but uses its own forms. Note that there is no definite article in Aramaic — the determined ָא ending functions in its place, so the noun must be in the determined state when accompanied by a demonstrative adjective.

3.4 Idiomatic Phrases with Demonstratives

Several fixed phrases built on דְּנָה appear constantly in Daniel and Ezra:

These phrases were introduced in Chapter 7. They appear so frequently that they deserve reinforcement here: the demonstrative דְּנָה is the backbone of Aramaic cohesive discourse — every "therefore" and "after this" in Daniel's narratives is built from it.

4. Interrogative Pronouns

Biblical Aramaic uses two interrogative pronouns that function much like their Hebrew counterparts.

4.1 מַן — "Who?"

The pronoun מַן asks about persons. It is uninflected — it does not change for gender or number.

Hebrew comparison: Identical function to Hebrew מִי. The form differs: Hebrew מִי vs. Aramaic מַן.

4.2 מָה — "What?"

The pronoun מָה asks about things. It is also uninflected.

Hebrew comparison: Identical function to Hebrew מַה / מֶה. Aramaic מָה parallels the Hebrew pausal form מָה.

4.3 Interrogative Pronoun in a Verbless Clause

Like Hebrew, Aramaic can use an interrogative in a verbless equative clause:

5. The Existential Pronoun אִיתַי and Its Negation לֵית

One of the most characteristic features of Biblical Aramaic — with no exact parallel in Biblical Hebrew grammar — is the existential construction using אִיתַי and לֵית.

5.1 אִיתַי — "There Is, There Are"

אִיתַי asserts the existence of something. It functions as a predicate and can introduce a noun phrase as its logical subject.

Hebrew comparison: Hebrew uses יֵשׁ for existence ("there is") and אֵין for non-existence ("there is not"). Aramaic uses אִיתַי and לֵית respectively. The functions are parallel; only the forms differ.

5.2 לֵית — "There Is Not, There Are Not"

לֵית is the negation of אִיתַי. It denies existence.

5.3 אִיתַי with Pronominal Suffixes

The existential אִיתַי takes pronominal suffixes to express "there is [a/the X] of/belonging to [pronoun]" — effectively "I have, you have, he has" etc. This is the standard way to express possession in Biblical Aramaic.

Note on contracted forms: In some passages (especially Dan 3:14–15), the preposition לְ- with suffix has fused with אִיתַי into a single orthographic word (e.g., אִיתֵיכוֹן = אִיתַי + לְכוֹן contracted). Recognizing these contracted forms is important for fluent reading.

6. The Relative Pronoun דִּי

The particle דִּי was introduced in Chapter 7 as both a relative pronoun and a genitive linker. Chapter 9 revisits it in the context of the full pronoun system.

6.1 As a Relative Pronoun

דִּי introduces a relative clause. It is uninflected — the same form is used regardless of the gender, number, or case of the antecedent.

6.2 Combined with Interrogatives

As seen in Section 4, דִּי follows interrogatives to form indefinite relative pronouns:

6.3 Distinguishing Relative from Genitive Use

The same דִּי that introduces a relative clause also links two nouns in a genitive relationship ("of"). The distinction is straightforward:

• If what follows דִּי is a clause (contains a verb or predicate), דִּי is a relative pronoun.
• If what follows דִּי is a noun (or noun phrase without a verb), דִּי is a genitive marker ("of").

7. The Indefinite Pronoun כֹּל — "All, Every, Whole"

7.1 Forms and Uses

כֹּל is among the most frequent words in Biblical Aramaic. It functions as an adjective ("all the X") or as an independent pronoun ("all, everyone, everything"). It is closely related to Hebrew כֹּל / כָּל.

Examples:

7.2 The Indefinite pronoun מִנְדַּעַם — "Something, Anything"

מִנְדַּעַם is a compound pronoun (from מִן + דַּעַם, "from a thing") that functions as an indefinite pronoun. In negative contexts it means "nothing."

8. The Particle הָא — Demonstrative and Attention Marker

The short form הָא appears in two related functions in Biblical Aramaic:

1. Demonstrative particle: "behold! here is!" — pointing deictically to what follows.
2. Attention-getter/presentative: "Look! Behold!" — introducing a dramatic or unexpected statement.

Compare with אֲרוּ: Biblical Aramaic also uses אֲרוּ as a presentative particle ("lo, behold" — Ch7). Both words serve attention-getting functions, but הָא is shorter and often introduces a quick pointing gesture ("here is X"), while אֲרוּ tends to introduce lengthier revelatory statements. In practice the two are often interchangeable.

9. Summary Tables

9.1 Independent Personal Pronouns

9.2 Demonstrative Pronouns

9.3 Interrogative Pronouns

9.4 Existential Pronouns

9.5 Other Pronouns

10. Examples from Daniel and Ezra

Independent Personal Pronoun as Subject

Daniel 2:38

אַנְתְּ הוּא רֵאשָׁא דִּי דַהֲבָא
"You are the head of gold."

The independent pronoun אַנְתְּ functions as subject of the verbless clause. הוּא serves as a pleonastic copula (a common Aramaic pattern). The predicate nominative is רֵאשָׁא.

Daniel 2:47

אֱלָהֲכוֹן הוּא אֱלָה אֱלָהִין
"Your God is indeed God of gods."

The 3ms pronoun הוּא functions as a copula in a verbless clause, affirming the identity of the subject.

Near Demonstrative דְּנָה

Daniel 2:36

דְּנָה חֶלְמָא וּפִשְׁרֵהּ נֵאמַר קֳדָם מַלְכָּא
"This is the dream, and its interpretation we will tell before the king."

דְּנָה stands independently as the subject, pointing anaphorically back to the dream just recounted.

Far Demonstrative הָדֵין

Daniel 3:15

מַן-אֱלָהּ דִּי יְשֵׁיזְבִנְכוֹן מִן-יְדַי הָדֵין
"Who is the god who will deliver you from my hand — this one / that one?"

הָדֵין modifies the implied referent, expressing Nebuchadnezzar's contemptuous dismissal.

Interrogative מַן

Daniel 3:15

מַן-אִיתַי אֱלָהּ דִּי יְשֵׁיזְבִנְכוֹן מִן-יְדַי
"Who is the god who will deliver you from my hand?"

מַן introduces the rhetorical question. אִיתַי functions as the existential predicate: "Who is there — a god who…?"

Interrogative מָה

Daniel 2:22

וְיָדַע מָה בַּחֲשׁוֹכָא
"And he knows what is in the darkness."

מָה introduces the embedded indirect question: "what [is] in the darkness."

Existential אִיתַי

Daniel 2:28

בְּרַם אִיתַי אֱלָהּ בִּשְׁמַיָּא גָּלֵא רָזִין
"But there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries."

This is one of the most theologically significant statements in Daniel. אִיתַי asserts the reality of God's existence in contrast to the silence of the Babylonian wise men.

Negative לֵית

Daniel 4:32

וְלָא אִיתַי דִּי יְמַחֵא בִידֵהּ
"And there is no one who can stop his hand."

לָא אִיתַי = the negated existential, equivalent in meaning to לֵית. The full negative form אֵין/לֵית and the periphrastic לָא אִיתַי both occur in Biblical Aramaic.

Daniel 6:5

דִּי לֵית-בֵּהּ כָּל-עִלָּה
"In whom there is no fault at all."

לֵית + בְּ- + pronominal suffix: "there is not in him any fault." The existential construction enables predication without a verbal clause.

Indefinite כֹּל

Daniel 3:7

כָּל-עַמְמַיָּא אֻמַּיָּא וְלִשָּׁנַיָּא נָפְלִין
"All the peoples, nations, and languages fell down."

כָּל- prefixed to a determined plural noun: "all the peoples." This three-fold enumeration (peoples, nations, languages) is a formulaic phrase that repeats throughout Daniel 3–6.

Relative דִּי

Ezra 5:11

אֲנַחְנָה אִנּוּן עַבְדוֹהִי דִּי אֱלָהּ שְׁמַיָּא וְאַרְעָא
"We are the servants of the God of heaven and earth."

The 1cp pronoun אֲנַחְנָה functions as subject. אִנּוּן is a pleonastic pronoun (copula function). דִּי introduces the genitive "of God of heaven and earth."

11. Practice

The pronoun drill exercise presents forms drawn from Daniel and Ezra. For each item, identify (1) the pronoun type (personal, demonstrative, interrogative, existential, relative, or indefinite), (2) the person/gender/number where applicable, and (3) the full translation of the phrase or clause.